{"id":1109,"date":"2024-12-07T14:03:57","date_gmt":"2024-12-07T14:03:57","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/aegir-ran.com\/?page_id=1109"},"modified":"2024-12-07T14:04:00","modified_gmt":"2024-12-07T14:04:00","slug":"clipperton-island","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/aegir-ran.com\/index.php\/clipperton-island\/","title":{"rendered":"Clipperton Island"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Clipperton Island<\/strong> (French: La Passion\u2013Clipperton<\/em> [la pasj\u0254\u0303 klip\u0153\u0281t\u0254n]<\/a>; Spanish: Isla de la Pasi\u00f3n<\/em>), also known as Clipperton Atoll<\/strong>[5]<\/sup> and previously as Clipperton’s Rock<\/strong>,[6]<\/sup> is an 8.9 km2<\/sup><\/a> (3.4 sq mi<\/a>) uninhabited French<\/a> coral atoll<\/a> in the eastern Pacific Ocean<\/a>. The only French territory in the North Pacific, Clipperton is 10,675 km<\/a> (6,633 mi<\/a>) from Paris<\/a>, France; 5,400 km<\/a> (2,900 nmi<\/a>) from Papeete<\/a>, French Polynesia<\/a>; and 1,280 km<\/a> (690 nmi<\/a>) from Acapulco<\/a>, Mexico.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Clipperton was documented by French merchant-explorers in 1711 and formally claimed as part of the French protectorate of Tahiti<\/a> in 1858. Despite this, American guano<\/a> miners began working the island in the early 1890s. As interest in the island grew, Mexico asserted a claim to the island based upon Spanish records from the 1520s that may have identified the island. Mexico established a small military colony on the island in 1905, but during the Mexican Revolution<\/a>contact with the mainland became infrequent, most of the colonists died, and lighthouse keeper Victoriano \u00c1lvarez instituted a short, brutal reign as “king” of the island. Eleven survivors were rescued in 1917 and Clipperton was abandoned.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The dispute between Mexico and France over Clipperton was taken to binding international arbitration<\/a> in 1909. Victor Emmanuel III<\/a>, King of Italy, was chosen as arbitrator and decided in 1931<\/a> that the island was French territory. Despite the ruling, Clipperton remained largely uninhabited until 1944 when the U.S. Navy established a weather station on the island to support its war efforts in the Pacific. France protested and, as concerns about Japanese activity in the eastern Pacific waned, the U.S. abandoned the site in late 1945.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Since the end of World War II, Clipperton has primarily been the site for scientific expeditions to study the island’s wildlife and marine life, including its significant masked<\/a> and brown booby<\/a> colonies. It has also hosted climate scientists and amateur radio DX-peditions<\/a>. Plans to develop the island for trade and tourism have been considered, but none have been enacted and the island remains mostly uninhabited with periodic visits from the French navy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Geography<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The coral island<\/a> is located at 10\u00b018\u2032N 109\u00b013\u2032W<\/a> in the East Pacific, 1,080 km<\/a>(583 nmi<\/a>) southwest of Mexico, 2,424 km (1,309 nmi) west of Nicaragua<\/a>, 2,545 km (1,374 nmi) west of Costa Rica<\/a> and 2,390 km (1,290 nmi) northwest of the Gal\u00e1pagos Islands<\/a> in Ecuador<\/a>.[7]<\/sup>[8]<\/sup>[9]<\/sup> The nearest land is Socorro Island<\/a>, about 945 km<\/a> (510 nmi<\/a>) to the northwest in the Revillagigedo Archipelago<\/a>.[10]<\/sup>The nearest French-owned island is Hiva Oa<\/a> in the Marquesas Islands<\/a> of French Polynesia<\/a>.[11]<\/sup>[12]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Despite its proximity to North America, Clipperton is often considered one of the eastern-most points of Oceania<\/a> due to being part the French Indo-Pacific,[13]<\/sup>[14]<\/sup>and to commonalities between its marine fauna and the marine fauna of Hawaii<\/a>and Kiribati<\/a>‘s Line Islands<\/a>, with the island sitting along the migration path for animals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific<\/a> region.[15]<\/sup>[16]<\/sup>[17]<\/sup> The island is the only emerged part of the East Pacific Rise<\/a>, as well as the only feature in the Clipperton Fracture Zone<\/a> that breaks the ocean’s surface, and it is one of the few islands in the Pacific that lacks an underwater archipelagic apron<\/a>.[18]<\/sup>[19]<\/sup>[20]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The atoll is low-lying and largely barren, with some scattered grasses, and a few clumps of coconut palms<\/a> (Cocos nucifera<\/em>).[21]<\/sup>[22]<\/sup> The land ring surrounding the lagoon measures 1.7 square kilometres (0.66 sq mi) in area with an average elevation of 2 m<\/a> (6.6 ft<\/a>), although a small volcanic<\/a> outcropping, referred to as Clipperton Rock<\/a> (Rocher de Clipperton<\/em>), rises to 29 m<\/a> (95 ft<\/a>) on its southeast side.[23]<\/sup> The surrounding 3.7-square-kilometre (1.4 sq mi) reef hosts an abundance of corals and is partly exposed at low tide.[24]<\/sup>[25]<\/sup> In 2001 a geodetic marker<\/a> was placed to evaluate if the land is rising or sinking.[26]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Clipperton Rock is the remains of the island’s now extinct volcano’s rim;[27]<\/sup>because it includes this rocky outcropping, Clipperton is not a true atoll and is sometimes referred to as a ‘near-atoll’.[28]<\/sup>[29]<\/sup> The surrounding reef in combination with the weather makes landing on the island difficult and anchoring offshore hazardous for larger ships; in the 1940s American ships reported active problems in this regard.[30]<\/sup>[31]<\/sup>[32]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Environment<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The environment of Clipperton Island has been studied extensively with the first recordings and sample collection being done in the 1800s.[33]<\/sup> Modern research on Clipperton is focused primarily on climate science and migratory wildlife.[34]<\/sup>[35]<\/sup>[36]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The SURPACLIP oceanographic expedition, a joint undertaking by the National Autonomous University of Mexico<\/a> and the University of New Caledonia Noum\u00e9a<\/a>, made extensive studies of the island in 1997.[37]<\/sup> In 2001, French National Centre for Scientific Research<\/a> geographer Christian Jost<\/a> extended the 1997 studies through the French Passion 2001 expedition, which focused on the evolution of Clipperton’s ecosystem<\/a>.[38]<\/sup> In 2003, cinematographer Lance Milbrand stayed on the island for 41 days, recording the adventure for the National Geographic Explorer<\/a><\/em> and plotting a GPS<\/a> map of Clipperton for the National Geographic Society<\/a>.[39]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 2005, a four-month scientific mission organised by Jean-Louis \u00c9tienne<\/a> made a complete inventory of Clipperton’s mineral, plant, and animal species; studied algae as deep as 100 m<\/a> (328 ft<\/a>) below sea level; and examined the effects of pollution.[40]<\/sup>[41]<\/sup> A 2008 expedition from the University of Washington<\/a>‘s School of Oceanography collected sediment cores from the lagoon to study climate change over the past millennium.[42]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Lagoon<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Clipperton is a ring-shaped atoll<\/a> that completely encloses a stagnant<\/a> fresh water<\/a>lagoon and measures 12 km<\/a> (7.5 mi<\/a>) in circumference and 720 hectares (2.8 sq mi) in area.[43]<\/sup>[44]<\/sup> The island is the only coral island in the eastern Pacific.[45]<\/sup>[46]<\/sup> The lagoon is devoid of fish, and is shallow over large parts except for some deep basins with depths of 43\u201372 m<\/a> (141\u2013236 ft<\/a>),[47]<\/sup> including a spot known as Trou Sans Fond (‘the bottomless hole’) with acidic<\/a> water at its base.[48]<\/sup> The water is described as being almost fresh at the surface and highly eutrophic<\/a>. Seaweed beds cover approximately 45% of the lagoon’s surface. The rim averages 150 m<\/a> (490 ft<\/a>) in width, reaching 400 m<\/a> (1,300 ft<\/a>) in the west, and narrowing to 45 m<\/a> (148 ft<\/a>) in the north-east, where sea waves occasionally spill over into the lagoon.[25]<\/sup> Ten islets<\/a> are present in the lagoon, six of which are covered with vegetation, including the Egg Islands (les \u00eeles aux \u0152ufs<\/em>).[49]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The closure of the lagoon approximately 170 years ago and prevention of seawater from entering the lagoon has formed a meromictic lake<\/a>.[48]<\/sup>[50]<\/sup>[51]<\/sup> The bottom of the shallow parts of the lake contain eroded coral heads<\/a>[52]<\/sup> from when the lagoon was last connected with the ocean.[47]<\/sup> During visits in 1897 and 1898 the depth at the middle of the lagoon was recorded as being between two inches and two feet due to the dead coral.[52]<\/sup> The surface of the lagoon has a high concentration of phytoplankton that vary slightly with the seasons.[53]<\/sup> As a result of this the water columns are stratified and do not mix leaving the lagoon with an oxic<\/a> and brackish upper water layer and a deep sulfuric anoxic saline layer.[51]<\/sup>[54]<\/sup>[55]<\/sup> At a depth of approximately 15 m<\/a> (49 ft<\/a>) the water shifts with salinity<\/a> rising and both pH<\/a> and oxygen quickly decreasing.[51]<\/sup> The deepest levels of the lagoon record waters enriched with hydrogen sulfide which prevent the growth of coral. Before the lagoon was closed off to seawater, coral and clams were able to survive in the area as evident by fossilized specimens.[47]<\/sup>[56]<\/sup>:\u200a112\u200a<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Studies of the water have found that microbial communities on the water’s surface are similar to other water samples from around the world with deeper water samples showing a great diversity of both bacteria and archaea<\/a>.[51]<\/sup> In 2005, a group of French scientists discovered three dinoflagellate<\/a> microalgae species in the lagoon: Peridiniopsis cristata<\/em>, which was abundant; Durinskia baltica<\/a><\/em>, which was known to exist previously in other locations, but was new to Clipperton; and Peridiniopsis cristata<\/em> var. tubulifera<\/em>, which is unique to the island.[57]<\/sup> The lagoon also harbours millions of isopods<\/a>, which are reported to deliver a painful sting.[58]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

While some sources have rated the lagoon water as non-potable<\/a>,[59]<\/sup> testimony from the crew of the tuna clipper M\/V Monarch,<\/em> stranded for 23 days in 1962 after their boat sank, indicates otherwise. Their report reveals that the lagoon water, while “muddy and dirty”, was drinkable, despite not tasting very good. Several of the castaways drank it, with no apparent ill effects.[60]<\/sup> Survivors of a Mexican military colony in 1917 (see below) indicated that they were dependent upon rain for their water supply, catching it in old boats.[60]<\/sup> American servicemen on the island during World War II had to use evaporators to purify the lagoon’s water.[32]<\/sup> Aside from the lagoon and water caught from rain, no freshwater sources are known to exist.[50]<\/sup>[51]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Climate<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

The island has a tropical oceanic climate, with average temperatures of 20\u201332 \u00b0C<\/a> (68\u201390 \u00b0F<\/a>) and highs up to 37.8 \u00b0C<\/a> (100.0 \u00b0F<\/a>).[33]<\/sup>[61]<\/sup> Annual rainfall is 3,000 to 5,000 millimetres (120 to 200 in), and the humidity level is generally between 85 per cent and 95 per cent with December to March being the drier months. The prevailing winds are the southeast trade winds<\/a>.[38]<\/sup>[62]<\/sup> The rainy season occurs from May to October,[33]<\/sup> and the region is subject to tropical cyclones from April to September, but such storms often pass to the northeast of Clipperton.[38]<\/sup> In 1997 Clipperton was in the path of the start of Hurricane Felicia<\/a>, as well as Hurricane Sandra<\/a> in 2015.[63]<\/sup> In addition, Clipperton has been subjected to multiple tropical storms and depressions including Tropical Storm Andres<\/a> in 2003.[64]<\/sup>[65]<\/sup> Surrounding ocean waters are warm, pushed by equatorial and counter-equatorial currents and have seen temperature increases due to global warming.[66]<\/sup>[67]<\/sup>[68]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Flora and fauna<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

See also: List of endemic species of Clipperton Island<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

When Snodgrass and Heller visited in 1898, they reported that “no land plant is native to the island”.[69]<\/sup> Historical accounts from 1711, 1825, and 1839 show a low grassy or suffrutescent (partially woody) flora. During Marie-H\u00e9l\u00e8ne Sachet<\/a>‘s visit in 1958, the vegetation was found to consist of a sparse cover of spiny grass and low thickets, a creeping plant (Ipomoea<\/a> spp.<\/em>), and stands of coconut palm. This low-lying herbaceous flora seems to be a pioneer in nature, and most of it is believed to be composed of recently introduced species. Sachet suspected that Heliotropium curassavicum<\/a><\/em>, and possibly Portulaca oleracea<\/a><\/em>, were native. Coconut<\/a> palms and pigs<\/a> introduced in the 1890s by guano<\/a> miners were still present in the 1940s.[54]<\/sup> The largest coconut grove is Bougainville Wood (Bois de Bougainville<\/em>) on the southwestern end of the island.[70]<\/sup> On the northwest side of the atoll, the most abundant plant species are Cenchrus echinatus<\/a><\/em>, Sida rhombifolia<\/a><\/em>, and Corchorus<\/a> aestuans<\/em>. These plants compose a shrub cover up to 30 cm<\/a> (12 in<\/a>) in height, and are intermixed with Eclipta<\/a><\/em>, Phyllanthus<\/a><\/em>, and Solanum<\/a><\/em>, as well as the taller Brassica juncea<\/a><\/em>. The islets in the lagoon are primarily vegetated with Cyperaceae<\/a>, Scrophulariaceae<\/a>, and Ipomoea pes-caprae<\/a><\/em>.[71]<\/sup> A unique feature of Clipperton is that the vegetation is arranged in parallel rows of species, with dense rows of taller species alternating with lower, more open vegetation. This was assumed to be a result of the trench-digging method of phosphate<\/a> mining used by guano hunters.[25]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The only land animals known to exist are two species of reptiles (the Pacific stump-toed gecko<\/a> and the copper-tailed skink<\/a>),[72]<\/sup>[73]<\/sup> bright-orange land crabs known as Clipperton crabs<\/a> (Johngarthia oceanica<\/em>, prior to 2019 classified as Johngartia planata<\/em>),[74]<\/sup>[75]<\/sup>[76]<\/sup> birds, and ship rats<\/a>. The rats probably arrived when large fishing boats wrecked on the island in 1999 and 2000.[77]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The pigs introduced in the 1890s reduced the crab population, which in turn allowed grassland<\/a> to gradually cover about 80 per cent of the land surface.[78]<\/sup>[79]<\/sup> The elimination of these pigs in 1958, the result of a personal project by Kenneth E. Stager<\/a>,[80]<\/sup>[81]<\/sup> caused most of this vegetation to disappear as the population of land crabs recovered.[77]<\/sup> As a result, Clipperton is mostly a sandy desert with only 674 palms counted by Christian Jost<\/a> during the Passion 2001 French mission and five islets in the lagoon with grass that the terrestrial crabs cannot reach. A 2005 report by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration<\/a>‘s Southwest Fisheries Science Center indicated that after the introduction of rats and their increased presence has led to a decline in both crab and bird populations, causing a corresponding increase in both vegetation and coconut palms. This report urgently recommended eradication of rats, which have been destroying bird nesting sites and the crab population,[82]<\/sup>[83]<\/sup> so that vegetation might be reduced, and the island might return to its ‘pre-human’ state.[77]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 1825, Benjamin Morrell<\/a> reported finding green sea turtles nesting on Clipperton, but later expeditions have not found nesting turtles there, possibly due to disruption from guano extraction, as well as the introduction of pigs and rats. Sea turtles found on the island appear to have been injured due to fishing practices.[84]<\/sup> Morrell also reported fur and elephant seals on the island in 1825, but they too have not been recorded by later expeditions.[85]<\/sup>[6]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Birds are common on the island; Morrell noted in 1825: “The whole island is literally covered with sea-birds, such as gulls, whale-birds, gannets, and the booby”.[6]<\/sup> Thirteen species of birds are known to breed on the island and 26 others have been observed as visitors.[83]<\/sup> The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area<\/a> by BirdLife International<\/a> because of the large breeding colony of masked boobies, with 110,000 individual birds recorded.[86]<\/sup> Observed bird species include white terns<\/a>, masked boobies<\/a>, sooty terns<\/a>, brown boobies<\/a>, brown noddies<\/a>, black noddies<\/a>, great frigatebirds<\/a>, coots<\/a>, martins<\/a> (swallows), cuckoos<\/a>, and yellow warblers<\/a>.[87]<\/sup>[88]<\/sup>[89]<\/sup> Ducks and moorhens have been reported in the lagoon.[25]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The coral reef on the north side of the island includes colonies more than 2 metres (6.6 ft) high. The 2018 Tara Pacific expedition located five colonies of Millepora platyphylla<\/a><\/em> at depths of 28\u201332 metres (92\u2013105 ft), the first of this fire coral species known in the region.[90]<\/sup> Among the Porites<\/a> spp.<\/em> stony corals, some bleaching<\/a> was observed, along with other indications of disease or stress, including parasitic worms and microalgae.[91]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The reefs that surround Clipperton have some of the highest concentration of endemic species<\/a> found anywhere with more than 115 species identified.[92]<\/sup>[93]<\/sup>[94]<\/sup> Many species are recorded in the area, including five or six endemics, such as Clipperton angelfish<\/a> (Holacanthus limbaughi<\/em>), Clipperton grouper (Epinephelus<\/a> clippertonensis<\/em>), Clipperton damselfish (Stegastes<\/a> baldwini<\/em>) and Robertson’s wrasse (Thalassoma robertsoni<\/a><\/em>). Widespread species around the reefs include Pacific creolefish<\/a>, blue-and-gold snapper<\/a>, and various species of goatfish<\/a>. In the water column, trevallies<\/a> are predominant, including black jacks<\/a>, bigeye trevally<\/a>, and bluefin trevally<\/a>.[95]<\/sup> Also common around Clipperton are black triggerfish<\/a>;, several species of groupers<\/a>, including leather bass<\/a> and starry groupers<\/a>; Mexican hogfish<\/a>; whitecheek<\/a>, convict<\/a>, and striped-fin surgeonfish<\/a>; yellow longnose<\/a> and blacknosed butterflyfish<\/a>; coral hawkfish<\/a>; golden pufferfish<\/a>; Moorish idols<\/a>; parrotfish<\/a>; and moray eels, especially speckled moray eels<\/a>.[96]<\/sup>[97]<\/sup>The waters around the island are an important nursery for sharks, particularly the white tip shark<\/a>. Galapagos sharks<\/a>,[98]<\/sup> reef sharks<\/a>, whale sharks<\/a>,[99]<\/sup> and hammerhead sharks<\/a> are also present around Clipperton.[100]<\/sup>[101]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Three expeditions to Clipperton have collected sponge<\/a> specimens, including U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt<\/a>‘s visit in 1938. Of the 190 specimens collected, 20 species were noted, including nine found only at Clipperton. One of the endemic sponges, collected during the 1938 visit, was named Callyspongia roosevelti<\/em> in honor of Roosevelt.[27]<\/sup>[102]<\/sup>[103]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In April 2009, Steven Robinson, a tropical fish dealer from Hayward, California<\/a>, traveled to Clipperton to collect Clipperton angelfish<\/a>.[104]<\/sup> Upon his return to the United States, he described the 52 illegally collected fish to federal wildlife authorities as king angelfish<\/a>,[105]<\/sup>[106]<\/sup> not the rarer Clipperton angelfish, which he intended to sell for $10,000.[106]<\/sup>[107]<\/sup> On 15 December 2011, Robinson was sentenced to 45 days of incarceration, one year of probation, and a $2,000 fine.[108]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Environmental threats<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

During the night of 10 February 2010, the Sichem Osprey<\/em>,[109]<\/sup> a Maltese chemical tanker<\/a>, ran aground en route from the Panama Canal<\/a> to South Korea<\/a>. The 170 m<\/a> (558 ft<\/a>) ship contained 10,513 metric tons (11,589 short tons) of xylene<\/a>, 6,005 metric tons (6,619 short tons) of soybean oil, and 6,000 metric tons (6,600 short tons) of tallow.[110]<\/sup>:\u200a43\u200a<\/sup> All 19 crew members were reported safe, and the vessel reported no leaks.[111]<\/sup>[112]<\/sup> The vessel was re-floated on 6 March[113]<\/sup> and returned to service.[114]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In mid-March 2012, the crew from the Clipperton Project noted the widespread presence of refuse, particularly on the northeast shore, and around the Clipperton Rock. Debris, including plastic bottles and containers, create a potentially harmful environment for the island’s flora and fauna.[26]<\/sup> This trash is common to only two beaches (northeast and southwest), and the rest of the island is fairly clean. Other refuse has been left after the occupations by Americans 1944\u20131945, French 1966\u20131969, and the 2008 scientific expedition.[115]<\/sup> During a 2015 scientific and amateur radio expedition to Clipperton, the operating team discovered a package that contained 1.2 kilograms (2.6 lb) of cocaine. It is suspected that the package washed up after being discarded at sea.[62]<\/sup> In April 2023, the Passion 23 mission by France’s Armed Forces in the Antilles<\/a> [fr<\/a>] and the surveillance frigate Germinal<\/a><\/em> collected more than 200 kilograms (440 lb) of plastic waste from the island’s beaches along with a bale of cocaine.[116]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Sea Around Us Project<\/a> estimates the Clipperton EEZ produces a harvest of 50,000 metric tons (55,000 short tons) of fish per year; however, because French naval patrols in the area are infrequent, this includes a significant amount of illegal fishing,[117]<\/sup>[118]<\/sup> along with lobster harvesting and shark finning<\/a>, resulting in estimated losses for France of \u20ac0.42 per kilogram of fish caught.[119]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

As deep-sea mining of polymetallic nodules<\/a> increases in the adjacent Clarion\u2013Clipperton Zone<\/a>, similar mining activity within France’s exclusive economic zone<\/a>surrounding the atoll may have an impact on marine life around Clipperton. Polymetallic nodules were discovered in the Clipperton EEZ during the Passion 2015 expedition.[120]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Politics and government<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The island is an overseas state private property of France<\/a> under direct authority of the Minister of the Overseas<\/a>.[121]<\/sup>[122]<\/sup> Although the island is French territory, it has no status within the European Union.[123]<\/sup> Ownership of Clipperton Island was disputed in the 19th and early 20th centuries between France<\/a> and Mexico<\/a>, but was finally settled through arbitration<\/a> in 1931; the Clipperton Island Case<\/a>remains widely studied in international law<\/a> textbooks.[124]<\/sup>[125]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In the late 1930s, as flying boats<\/a> opened the Pacific to air travel, Clipperton Island was noted as a possible waypoint for a trans-Pacific route from the Americas to Asia via the Marquesas Islands<\/a> in French Polynesia, bypassing Hawaii. However, France indicated no interest in developing commercial air traffic in the corridor.[126]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

After France ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea<\/a>(UNCLOS) in 1996,[127]<\/sup>[128]<\/sup> they reaffirmed the exclusive economic zone<\/a> off Clipperton island which had been established in 1976.[129]<\/sup> After changes were made to the area nations were allowed to claim under the third convention of UNCLOS[130]<\/sup> France in 2018 expanded the outer limits of the territorial sea to 22 km (12 nmi) and the exclusive economic zone off Clipperton Island to 370 km (200 nmi), encompassing 431,273 square kilometres (166,515 sq mi) of ocean.[131]<\/sup>[132]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

On 21 February 2007, administration of Clipperton was transferred from the High Commissioner<\/a> of the Republic in French Polynesia<\/a> to the Minister of Overseas France.[133]<\/sup>:\u200a99\u200a<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 2015, French MP Philippe Folliot<\/a> set foot on Clipperton becoming the first elected official from France to do so. Folliot noted that visiting Clipperton was something he had wanted to do since he was nine years old.[134]<\/sup>[135]<\/sup>[136]<\/sup>Following the visit, Folliot reported to the National Assembly<\/a> on the pressing need to reaffirm French sovereignty over the atoll and its surrounding maritime claims. He also proposed establishing an international scientific research station on Clipperton and administrative reforms surrounding the oversight of the atoll.[137]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 2022, France passed legislation officially referring to the island as “La Passion\u2013Clipperton”.[138]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

History<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Discovery and early claims<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

There are several claims to the first discovery of the island. The earliest recorded possible sighting is 24 January 1521 when Portuguese-born Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan<\/a> discovered an island he named San Pablo after turning westward away from the American mainland during his circumnavigation of the globe.[139]<\/sup> On 15 November 1528, Spaniard<\/a> \u00c1lvaro de Saavedra Cer\u00f3n<\/a>discovered an island he called Isla M\u00e9danos in the region while on an expedition commissioned by his cousin, the Spanish conquistador Hern\u00e1n Cort\u00e9s<\/a>, to find a route to the Philippines<\/a>.[140]<\/sup>[141]<\/sup>[142]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Although both San Pablo and Isla M\u00e9danos are considered to be possible sightings of Clipperton, the island was first charted by French merchant Michel Dubocage<\/a>, commanding La D\u00e9couverte<\/em>, who arrived at the island on Good Friday<\/a>, 3 April 1711; he was joined the following day by fellow ship captain Martin de Chassiron<\/a> [fr<\/a>] and La Princesse<\/em>.[143]<\/sup> The island was given the name \u00cele de la Passion<\/em> (‘Passion Island’) as the date of rediscovery fell within Passiontide<\/a>. They drew up the first map of the island and claimed it for France.[144]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In August 1825, American sea captain Benjamin Morrell<\/a> made the first recorded landing on Clipperton, exploring the island and making a detailed report of its vegetation.[145]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The common name for the island comes from John Clipperton<\/a>, an English pirate<\/a>and privateer<\/a> who fought the Spanish during the early 18th century, and who is said to have passed by the island. Some sources claim that he used it as a base for his raids on shipping.[146]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

19th century<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Mexican claim 1821\u20131858<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

After its declaration of independence<\/a> in 1821, Mexico took possession of the lands that had once belonged to Spain. As Spanish records noted the existence of the island as early as 1528, the territory was incorporated into Mexico.[147]<\/sup>The Mexican constitution of 1917<\/a> explicitly includes the island, using the Spanish name La Pasi\u00f3n<\/em>, as Mexican territory. This would be amended on January 18, 1934, after the sovereignty dispute over the island was settled in favor of France.[148]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

El territorio nacional comprende el de las partes integrantes de la Federaci\u00f3n y adem\u00e1s el de las islas adyacentes en ambos mares. Comprende, asimismo, la isla de Guadalupe, las de Revillagigedo y la de la Pasi\u00f3n, situadas en el oc\u00e9ano Pac\u00edfico.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The national territory includes that of the integral parts of the Federation and also that of the adjacent islands in both seas. It also includes the island of Guadalupe, Revillagigedo and La Pasi\u00f3n, located in the Pacific Ocean.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u2014 Mexican Constitution of 1917[150]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

French claim (1858)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

In April 1858, French minister Eug\u00e8ne Rouher<\/a> reached an agreement with a Mr. Lockhard of Le Havre to claim oceanic islands in the Pacific for the exploitation of guano deposits.[62]<\/sup> On 17 November 1858, Emperor<\/a> Napoleon III<\/a> formally annexed Clipperton as part of the French protectorate of Tahiti<\/a>.[151]<\/sup> Sailing aboard Lockhart’s ship Amiral<\/em>, Ship-of-the-line Lieutenant Victor Le Coat de Kerv\u00e9guen published a notice of this annexation in Hawaiian newspapers to further cement France’s claim to the island.[89]<\/sup>[152]<\/sup>[153]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Guano mining claims (1892\u20131905)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

In 1892, a claim on the island was filed with the U.S. State Department under the U.S. Guano Islands Act<\/a> by Frederick W. Permien of San Francisco on behalf of the Stonington Phosphate Company.[154]<\/sup> In 1893, Permien transferred those rights to a new company, the Oceanic Phosphate Company.[155]<\/sup> In response to the application, the State Department rejected the claim, noting France’s prior claim on the island and that the claim was not bonded as was required by law.[156]<\/sup> Additionally during this time there were concerns in Mexico that the British or Americans would lay claim to the island.[157]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Despite the lack of U.S. approval of its claim, the Oceanic Phosphate Company began mining guano on the island in 1895.[158]<\/sup> Although the company had plans for as many as 200 workers on the island, at its peak only 25 men were stationed there.[149]<\/sup> The company shipped its guano to Honolulu and San Francisco where it sold for between US$10 and US$20 per ton.[159]<\/sup> In 1897, the Oceanic Phosphate Company began negotiations with the British Pacific Islands Company<\/a> to transfer its interest in Clipperton; this drew the attention of both French and Mexican officials.[160]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

On 24 November 1897, French naval authorities arrived on the Duguay Trouin<\/a><\/em>and found three Americans working on the island. The French ordered the American flag<\/a> to be lowered.[160]<\/sup> At that time, U.S. authorities assured the French that they did not intend to assert American sovereignty over the island.[124]<\/sup>[161]<\/sup> A few weeks later, on 13 December 1897, Mexico sent the gunboat La Dem\u00f3crata<\/em> and a group of marines to assert its claim on the island, evicting the Americans, raising the Mexican flag,[162]<\/sup> and drawing a protest from France.[163]<\/sup>[164]<\/sup> From 1898 to 1905, the Pacific Islands Company worked the Clipperton guano deposits under a concession agreement with Mexico.[160]<\/sup>[165]<\/sup> In 1898, Mexico made a US$1.5 million claim against the Oceanic Phosphate Company for the guano shipped from the island from 1895 to 1897.[159]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

20th century<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Mexican colonization (1905\u20131917)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

In 1905, the Mexican government renegotiated its agreement with the British Pacific Islands Company, establishing a military garrison on the island a year later and erecting a lighthouse<\/a> under the orders of Mexican President<\/a> Porfirio D\u00edaz<\/a>. Captain Ram\u00f3n Arnaud<\/a> was appointed governor of Clipperton. At first he was reluctant to accept the post, believing it amounted to exile from Mexico, but he relented after being told that D\u00edaz had personally chosen him to protect Mexico’s interests in the international conflict with France. It was also noted that because Arnaud spoke English, French, and Spanish, he would be well equipped to help protect Mexico’s sovereignty over the territory.[160]<\/sup>[166]<\/sup> He arrived on Clipperton as governor later that year.[167]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

By 1914 around 100 men, women, and children lived on the island, resupplied every two months by a ship from Acapulco<\/a>. With the escalation of fighting in the Mexican Revolution<\/a>, regular resupply visits ceased, and the inhabitants were left to their own devices.[168]<\/sup> On 28 February 1914, the schooner Nokomis<\/em> wrecked on Clipperton; with a still seaworthy lifeboat, four members of the crew volunteered to row to Acapulco for help.[169]<\/sup> The USS Cleveland<\/em><\/a> arrived months later to rescue the crew.[170]<\/sup> While there, the captain offered to transport the survivors of the colony back to Acapulco; Arnaud refused as he believed a supply ship would soon arrive.[171]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

By 1917, all but one of the male inhabitants had died. Many had perished from scurvy<\/a>,[172]<\/sup> while others, including Arnaud, died during an attempt to sail after a passing ship to fetch help.[173]<\/sup> Lighthouse keeper Victoriano \u00c1lvarez was the last man on the island, together with 15 women and children.[174]<\/sup> \u00c1lvarez proclaimed himself ‘king’, and began a campaign of rape and murder, before being killed by Tirza Rend\u00f3n, who was his favourite victim. Almost immediately after \u00c1lvarez’s death, four women and seven children, the last survivors, were picked up by the U.S. Navy gunship Yorktown<\/em><\/a> on 18 July 1917.[168]<\/sup>[175]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Final arbitration of ownership (1931)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

See also: Clipperton Island case<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Throughout Mexico’s occupation of Clipperton, France insisted on its ownership of the island, and lengthy diplomatic correspondence between the two countries led to a treaty on 2 March 1909, agreeing to seek binding international arbitration<\/a>by Victor Emmanuel III of Italy<\/a>, with each nation promising to abide by his determination.[124]<\/sup>[176]<\/sup> In 1931, Victor Emmanuel III issued his arbitral decision in the Clipperton Island Case<\/a>, declaring Clipperton a French possession.[161]<\/sup>[177]<\/sup>[178]<\/sup>[179]<\/sup> Mexican President Pascual Ortiz Rubio<\/a>, in response to public opinion that considered the Italian king biased towards France, consulted international experts on the validity of the decision, but ultimately Mexico accepted Victor Emmanuel’s findings.[180]<\/sup> The Mexican press at the time raised the issue of the Monroe Doctrine<\/a> with the United States, stating that the French claim had preceded its issuance.[181]<\/sup>[182]<\/sup> France formally took possession of Clipperton on January 26, 1935.[183]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

U.S. presidential visit<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

President Franklin D. Roosevelt<\/a> made a stop over at Clipperton in July 1938 aboard the USS Houston<\/em><\/a> as part of a fishing expedition to the Gal\u00e1pagos Islands<\/a>and other points along the Central and South American coasts.[184]<\/sup>[185]<\/sup> At the island, Roosevelt and his party spent time fishing for sharks,[186]<\/sup> and afterwards Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt<\/a> of the Smithsonian Institution<\/a> went ashore with some crew to gather scientific samples and make observations of the island.[187]<\/sup>[188]<\/sup>[189]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Roosevelt had previously tried to visit Clipperton in July 1934 after transiting through the Panama Canal en route to Hawaii on the Houston<\/em>; he had heard the area was good for fishing, but heavy seas prevented them from lowering a boat when they reached the island.[185]<\/sup>[190]<\/sup> On 19 July 1934, soon after the stop at Clipperton, the rigid airship USS Macon<\/em><\/a> rendezvoused with the Houston<\/em>, and one of the Macon<\/em>‘s Curtiss F9C<\/a> biplanes delivered mail to the president.[185]<\/sup>[191]<\/sup>[192]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

American occupation (1944\u20131945)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

In April 1944, the USS Atlanta<\/em><\/a> took observations of Clipperton while en route to Hawaii.[194]<\/sup>[195]<\/sup> After an overflight of the island by planes from the USS Detroit<\/em><\/a>and USS Nevada<\/em><\/a> to ensure Clipperton was uninhabited,[196]<\/sup> the USS Argus<\/em><\/a>departed San Francisco on 4 December 1944 with aerological<\/a> specialists and personnel and was followed several days later by USS LST-563<\/em><\/a> with provisions, heavy equipment, and equipment for construction of a U.S. Navy<\/a> weather station on the island.[197]<\/sup>[198]<\/sup>[199]<\/sup> The sailors at the weather station were armed in case of a possible Japanese attack in the region.[193]<\/sup>[200]<\/sup> Landing on the island proved challenging. LST-563<\/em> grounded on the reef and the salvage ship USS Seize<\/em><\/a> was brought in to help refloat the ship but it too was grounded.[201]<\/sup>Finally, in January 1945, the USS Viking<\/em><\/a> and USS Tenino<\/em><\/a> were able to free the Seize<\/em> and to offload equipment from LST-563<\/em> before it was abandoned.[197]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Once the weather station was completed and sailors garrisoned on the island, the U.S. government informed the British, French, and Mexican governments of the station and its purpose.[202]<\/sup> Every day at 9 a.m., the 24 sailors stationed at the Clipperton weather station sent up weather balloons to gather information.[203]<\/sup>[204]<\/sup> Later, Clipperton was considered for an airfield to shift traffic between North America and Australia far from the front lines of Pacific Theater<\/a>.[205]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In April 1943, during a meeting between presidents Roosevelt<\/a> of the U.S. and Avila Camacho<\/a> of Mexico, the topic of Mexican ownership of Clipperton was raised. The American government seemed interested in Clipperton being handed over to Mexico due to the importance the island might play in both commercial and military air travel,[206]<\/sup> as well as its proximity to the Panama Canal<\/a>.[207]<\/sup>[208]<\/sup>[209]<\/sup>[210]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Although these talks were informal, the U.S. backed away from any Mexican claim on Clipperton as Mexico had previously accepted the 1931 arbitration decision. The U.S. government also felt it would be easier to obtain a military base on the island from France.[211]<\/sup>[212]<\/sup> However, after the French government was notified about the weather station, relations on this matter deteriorated rapidly[213]<\/sup> with the French government sending a formal note of protest in defense of French sovereignty.[199]<\/sup>[214]<\/sup>[215]<\/sup> In response, the U.S. extended an offer for the French military to operate the station or to have the Americans agree to leave the weather station under the same framework previously agreed to with other weather stations in France and North Africa.[216]<\/sup> There were additional concern within the newly formed Provisional Government of the French Republic<\/a> that notification of the installation was made to military and not civilian leadership.[217]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault<\/a> said of the incident: “This is very humiliating to us we are anxious to cooperate with you, but sometimes you do not make it easy”.[199]<\/sup>[218]<\/sup>[219]<\/sup> French Vice Admiral Raymond Fenard<\/a> requested during a meeting with U.S. Admiral Lyal A. Davidson<\/a> that civilians be given access to Clipperton and the surrounding waters,[220]<\/sup> but the U.S. Navy denied the request because there was an active military installation on the island. Instead Davidson offered to transport a French officer to the installation and reassured the French government that the United States did not wish to claim sovereignty over the island.[221]<\/sup> During these discussions between the admirals, French diplomats in Mexico attempted to hire the Mexican vessel Pez de Plata<\/em>out of Acapulco<\/a> to bring a military attach\u00e9 to Clipperton under a cover story that they were going on a shark fishing trip.[222]<\/sup> At the request of the Americans, the Mexican government refused to allow the Pez De Plata<\/em> to leave port.[218]<\/sup> French officials then attempted to leave in another smaller vessel and filed a false destination with the local port authorities but were also stopped by Mexican officials.[223]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

During this period, French officials in Mexico leaked information about their concerns, as well as about the arrival of seaplanes at Clipperton, to The New York Times<\/em> and Newsweek<\/em>; both stories were refused publishing clearance on national security grounds.[224]<\/sup> In February 1945, the U.S. Navy transported French Officer Lieutenant Louis Jampierre on a 4-day trip to Clipperton out of San Diego[225]<\/sup> where he visited the installation and that afternoon returned to the United States.[226]<\/sup>[227]<\/sup> As the war in the Pacific progressed, concerns about Japanese incursions into the Eastern Pacific were reduced and in September 1945 the U.S. Navy began removing from Clipperton.[228]<\/sup>[229]<\/sup> During the evacuation, munitions were destroyed, but significant mat\u00e9riel was left on the island.[229]<\/sup>[134]<\/sup> By 21 October 1945, the last U.S. Navy staff at the weather station left Clipperton.[197]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Post-World War II developments<\/h4>\n\n\n\n

Since the island was abandoned by American forces at the end of World War II<\/a>, the island has been visited by sports fishermen, French naval patrols, and Mexican tuna and shark fishermen. There have been infrequent scientific and amateur radio expeditions and, in 1978, Jacques-Yves Cousteau<\/a> visited with a team of divers and a survivor from the 1917 evacuation to film a television special called Clipperton: The Island that Time Forgot<\/em>.[230]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The island was visited by ornithologist Ken Stager<\/a> of the Los Angeles County Museum<\/a> in 1958.[88]<\/sup> Appalled at the depredations visited by feral pigs upon the island’s brown booby<\/a> and masked booby<\/a> colonies (reduced to 500 and 150 birds, respectively), Stager procured a shotgun and killed all 58 pigs.[80]<\/sup> By 2003, the booby colonies had grown to 25,000 brown boobies and 112,000 masked boobies, making Clipperton home to the world’s second-largest brown booby colony, and its largest masked booby colony.[77]<\/sup> In 1994, Stager’s story inspired Bernie Tershy and Don Croll, both professors at the University of California, Santa Cruz<\/a> Long Marine Lab<\/a>, to found the non-profit Island Conservation<\/a>, which works to prevent extinctions through the removal of invasive species from islands.[231]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

When the independence of Algeria<\/a> in 1962 threatened French nuclear testing<\/a>sites in North Africa, the French Ministry of Defence<\/a> considered Clipperton as a possible replacement site.[232]<\/sup>[233]<\/sup> This was eventually ruled out due to the island’s hostile climate and remote location,[234]<\/sup> but the island was used to house a small scientific mission to collect data on nuclear fallout from other nuclear tests.[134]<\/sup> From 1966 to 1969, the French military sent a series of missions, called “Bougainville”, to the island. The Bougainville missions unloaded some 25 tons of equipment, including sanitary facilities, traditional Polynesian dwellings, drinking water treatment tanks, and generators. The missions sought to surveil the island and its surrounding waters, observe weather conditions, and evaluate potential rehabilitation of the World War II era airstrip.[26]<\/sup> By 1978, the structures built during the Bougainville missions had become quite derelict.[21]<\/sup>The French explored reopening the lagoon and developing a harbour for trade and tourism during the 1970s, but this too was abandoned.[235]<\/sup> An automatic weather installation was completed on 7 April 1980, with data collected by the station transmitted via the Argos satellite system<\/a> to the Lannion Space Meteorology Center in Brittany<\/a> France.[236]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 1981, the Acad\u00e9mie des sciences d’outre-mer<\/a> recommended the island have its own economic infrastructure, with an airstrip<\/a> and a fishing port in the lagoon. This would mean opening the lagoon to the ocean by creating a passage in the atoll rim. To oversee this, the French government reassigned Clipperton from the High Commissioner for French Polynesia to the direct authority of the French government, classifying the island as an overseas state private property administered by France’s Overseas Minister. In 1986, the Company for the Study, Development and Exploitation of Clipperton Island (French acronym, SEDEIC<\/a>) and French officials began outlining a plan for the development of Clipperton as a fishing port,[237]<\/sup> but due to economic constraints, the distance from markets, and the small size of the atoll, nothing beyond preliminary studies was undertaken and plans for the development were abandoned. In the mid-1980s, the French government began efforts to enlist citizens of French Polynesia to settle on Clipperton; these plans were ultimately abandoned as well.[238]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In November 1994, the French Space Agency<\/a> requested the help of NASA<\/a> to track the first stage breakup<\/a> of the newly designed Ariane 5<\/a> rocket.[239]<\/sup> After spending a month on Clipperton setting up and calibrating radar equipment to monitor Ariane flight V88<\/a>, the mission ended in disappointment when the rocket disintegrated 37 seconds after launch due to a software bug.[239]<\/sup>[240]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Despite Mexico accepting the 1931 arbitration decision that Clipperton was French territory, the right of Mexican fishing vessels to work Clipperton’s territorial waters have remained a point of contention. A 2007 treaty, reaffirmed in 2017, grants Mexican access to Clipperton’s fisheries so long as authorization is sought from the French government, conservation measures are followed, and catches are reported; however, the lack of regular monitoring of the fisheries by France makes verifying compliance difficult.[241]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Castaways<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

In May 1893, Charles Jensen and “Brick” Thurman of the Oceanic Phosphate Company were left on the island by the company’s ship Compeer<\/em> with 90 days worth of supplies in order to prevent other attempts to claim the island and its guano. Before sailing for Clipperton, Jensen wrote a letter to the Secretary of the Coast Seamen’s Union, Andrew Furuseth<\/a>, instructing him that if the Oceanic Phosphate Company had not sent a vessel to Clipperton six weeks after the return of the Compeer<\/em> to make it known that they had been stranded there.[242]<\/sup>The Oceanic Phosphate Company denied it had left the men without adequate supplies and contracted the schooner Viking<\/em> to retrieve them in late August.[243]<\/sup>The Viking<\/em> rescued the men, who had used seabirds’ eggs to supplement their supplies, and returned them to San Francisco on 31 October.[244]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In May 1897, the British cargo vessel Kinkora<\/em> wrecked on Clipperton;[245]<\/sup>[246]<\/sup> the crew was able to salvage food and water from the ship, allowing them to survive on the island in relative comfort. During the crew’s time on the island, a passing vessel offered to take the men to the mainland for $1,500, which the crew refused. Instead eight of the men loaded up a lifeboat and rowed to Acapulco for help.[247]<\/sup>[248]<\/sup> After the first mate of the Kinkora<\/em>, Mr. McMarty, arrived in Acapulco, HMS Comus<\/em><\/a> set sail from British Columbia to rescue the sailors.[248]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 1947, five American fishermen from San Pedro, California, were rescued from Clipperton after surviving on the island for six weeks.[249]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In early 1962, the island provided a home to nine crewmen of the sunken tuna clipper MV Monarch<\/em>, stranded for 23 days from 6 February to 1 March.[250]<\/sup> They reported that the lagoon water was drinkable, although they preferred to drink water from the coconuts they found. Unable to use any of the dilapidated buildings, they constructed a crude shelter from cement bags and tin salvaged from Quonset huts<\/a> built by the American military 20 years earlier. Wood from the huts was used for firewood, and fish caught off the fringing reef combined with potatoes and onions they had saved from their sinking vessel augmented the island’s meager supply of coconuts. The crewmen reported they tried eating bird’s eggs, but found them to be rancid, and they decided after trying to cook a ‘little black bird’ that it did not have enough meat to make the effort worthwhile. Pigs had been eradicated, but the crewmen reported seeing their skeletons around the atoll.[60]<\/sup> The crewmen were eventually discovered by another fishing boat, and rescued by the U.S. Navy destroyer USS Robison<\/em><\/a>.[251]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Amateur radio DX-peditions<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Clipperton has long been an attractive destination for amateur radio<\/a> groups due to its remoteness, permit requirements, history, and interesting environment.[252]<\/sup>While some radio operation has been part of other visits to the island, major DX-peditions<\/a> have included FO0XB (1978)<\/a>,[21]<\/sup>[253]<\/sup> FO0XX (1985),[254]<\/sup> FO0CI (1992),[255]<\/sup> FO0AAA (2000),[256]<\/sup> TX5C (2008),[256]<\/sup> and TX5S (2024).[257]<\/sup>[258]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In March 2014, the Cordell Expedition, organised and led by Robert Schmieder<\/a>, combined a radio DX-pedition using callsign<\/a> TX5K with environmental and scientific investigations.[259]<\/sup> The team of 24 radio operators made more than 114,000 contacts, breaking the previous record of 75,000. The activity included extensive operation in the 6-meter band<\/a>, including Earth\u2013Moon\u2013Earth communication<\/a> (EME) or ‘moonbounce’ contacts.[260]<\/sup>[261]<\/sup> A notable accomplishment was the use of DXA, a real-time satellite-based online graphic radio log web page, allowing anyone with a browser to see the radio activity. Scientific work conducted during the expedition included the first collection and identification of foraminifera<\/a> and extensive aerial imaging of the island using kite-borne cameras. The team included two scientists from the University of Tahiti<\/a> and a French TV documentary crew from Thalassa<\/em><\/a>.[262]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In April 2015, Alain Duchauchoy, F6BFH, operated from Clipperton using callsign TX5P as part of the Passion 2015 scientific expedition to Clipperton Island. Duchauchoy also researched Mexican use of the island during the early 1900s as part of the expedition.[258]<\/sup>[263]<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Notes<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
    \n
  1. The island is assigned a\u00a0French postal code<\/a>, but there is no\u00a0post office<\/a>\u00a0on the island.[4]<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n

    References<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
      \n
    1. Findlay, A. G.; Maury, M. F. (1853).\u00a0“Oceanic Currents, and Their Connection with the Proposed Central-America Canals”<\/a>.\u00a0Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London<\/a><\/em>.\u00a023<\/strong>: 217\u2013242.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.2307\/1797966<\/a>.\u00a0JSTOR<\/a>\u00a01797966<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a01 April\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    2. Jost, Christian H.<\/a>\u00a0(2003). “Clipperton \u2013 \u00cele de la Passion: une aire fran\u00e7aise du Pacifique \u00e0 prot\u00e9ger” [Clipperton \u2013 \u00cele de la Passion: a French area in the Pacific to be protected]. In Lebigre, Jean-Michel; Decoudras, Pierre-Marie (eds.).\u00a0Les aires prot\u00e9g\u00e9es insulaires et littorales tropicales<\/em><\/a>\u00a0[Tropical island and coastal protected areas<\/em>]. \u00celes et Archipels N\u00ba32 (in French). Bordeaux: CRET. p.\u00a0244.\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a02-905081-45-7<\/bdi><\/a>.\u00a0OCLC<\/a>\u00a0492187765<\/a>.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    3. D\u00e9cret n\u00b0 2017-292 du 6 mars 2017 relatif au temps l\u00e9gal fran\u00e7ais<\/a>\u00a0[Decree No. 2017-292 of March 6, 2017 relating to French legal time] (D\u00e9cret 2017-292) (in French). 6 March 2017. p.\u00a02.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved\u00a06 April\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    4. Jullien, Pierre (17 April 2020).\u00a0“Clipperton\u00a0: une ” passion ” am\u00e9ricano-franco-mexicaine”<\/a>\u00a0[Clipperton: An American-Franco-Mexican “Passion”].\u00a0Le Monde<\/em>\u00a0(in French).\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 31 July 2022. Retrieved\u00a031 July\u00a02022.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    5. Glynn, P. W.; Veron, J. E. N.; Wellington, G. M. (June 1996).\u00a0“Clipperton Atoll (eastern Pacific): oceanography, geomorphology, reef-building coral ecology and biogeography”<\/a>.\u00a0Coral Reefs<\/a><\/em>.\u00a015<\/strong>\u00a0(2): 71\u201399.\u00a0Bibcode<\/a>:1996CorRe..15…71G<\/a>.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.1007\/BF01771897<\/a>.\u00a0ISSN<\/a>\u00a00722-4028<\/a>.\u00a0S2CID<\/a>\u00a033353663<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a03 April\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    6. ^\u00a0a<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0Morrell, Benjamin (1841),\u00a0A Narrative of Four Voyages to the South Sea, North and South, Pacific Ocean, Chinese Sea, Ethiopic and Southern Atlantic Ocean, Indian and Antarctic Ocean from the Years 1822 to 1831<\/em><\/a>, New York, New York: Harper & Brothers, p.\u00a0219,\u00a0archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 1 April 2023, retrieved\u00a01 April\u00a02023normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    7. Hinz, Earl R.; Howard, Jim (2006).\u00a0Landfalls of Paradise: Cruising Guide to the Pacific Islands<\/em><\/a>. University of Hawaii Press.\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a09780824845186<\/bdi><\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a04 February\u00a02022\u00a0\u2013 via Google Books.\u00a0French Polynesia operates as a CEPT country under French authority, but still requires local permission and a local call sign (as do the other French colonies in Oceania: Clipperton, New Caledonia, and Wallis and Futuna.)<\/q>normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    8. Todd, Ian (1974).\u00a0Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama<\/em><\/a>. Angus & Robertson. p.\u00a0190.\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a09780207127618<\/bdi><\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a02 February\u00a02022\u00a0\u2013 via Google Books.\u00a0On the other side of Oceania, about 1,800 miles (2,897 km) west of the Panama Canal, is another French possession, Clipperton Island.<\/q>normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    9. Mustin, Lloyd Montague; Winkler, David F. (2024).\u00a0Witness to Neptune’s inferno: the Pacific War diary of Lieutenant Commander Lloyd M. Mustin, USS Atlanta (CL 51)<\/em><\/a>. Havertown, PA: Casemate Publishers.\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a0978-1-63624-407-5<\/bdi><\/a>.\u00a0OCLC<\/a>\u00a01395066970<\/a>.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    10. Ineich, Ivan; Zug, George (1991).\u00a0“Nomenclatural status of Emoia cyanura (Lacertilia, Scincidae) populations in the Central Pacific”<\/a>.\u00a0Copeia<\/a><\/em>.\u00a01991<\/strong>\u00a0(4). American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists: 1132\u20131136.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.2307\/1446114<\/a>.\u00a0JSTOR<\/a>\u00a01446114<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 15 March 2022. Retrieved\u00a018 March\u00a02022.\u00a0Its distribution encompasses much of Oceania from the Hawaiian archipelago, Clipperton Island, and Easter Island westward through Polynesia and Melanesia<\/q>normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    11. Fisher, Denise (16 March 2022).\u00a0“L’Indo-Pacifique et la souverainet\u00e9 de la France en Oc\u00e9anie”<\/a>.\u00a0Outre-Terre<\/em>.\u00a06061<\/strong>\u00a0(1): 467\u2013503.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.3917\/oute2.060.0468<\/a>.\u00a0S2CID<\/a>\u00a0247540315<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 29 July 2022. Retrieved\u00a029 July\u00a02022.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    12. Bemp\u00e9chat, Paul-Andr\u00e9 (2017).\u00a0Jean Cras, Polymath of Music and Letters<\/em><\/a>. Taylor & Francis.\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a09781351561754<\/bdi><\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a018 February\u00a02022\u00a0\u2013 via Google Books.\u00a0In India, French settlements included Pondicherry, Karikal, Yanaon, Mah\u00e9 and Chandernagore; and in Oceania, Clipperton, New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Vanuatu (shared with the British Empire)<\/q>normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    13. Terry, James P. (1988).\u00a0Climate and Environmental Change in the Pacific<\/em><\/a>. The University of Michigan. p.\u00a05.\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a09789820103580<\/bdi><\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a011 March\u00a02022\u00a0\u2013 via Google Books.\u00a0The British added the Ellice, Pitcairn and portions of the Phoenix Islands; the Australians consolidated their claims to Papua; and the French consolidated their claims to Clipperton islands; Easter and adjacent islands were claimed by Chile, Cocos Island was claimed by Costa Rica, and the Galapagos claimed by Ecuador. By 1900, there were virtually no remaining islands in Oceania unclaimed by foreign powers.<\/q>normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    14. Flichy de la Neuville, Thomas; De Gentile, Eleonore (2022).\u00a0“France in the Pacific. History of a Discreet Presence”<\/a>.\u00a0Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Au\u00dfen- und Sicherheitspolitik<\/em>.\u00a015<\/strong>: 69\u201382.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.1007\/s12399-022-00893-w<\/a>.\u00a0S2CID<\/a>\u00a0248174340<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved\u00a030 July\u00a02022.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    15. Fourri\u00e9re, Manon; Reyes-Bonilla, H\u00e9ctor; Rodr\u00edguez-Zaragoza, Fabi\u00e1n A.; Crane, Nicole (2014).\u00a0“Fishes of Clipperton Atoll, Eastern Pacific: Checklist, Endemism, and Analysis of Completeness of the Inventory”<\/a>.\u00a0Pacific Science<\/em>.\u00a068<\/strong>\u00a0(3): 375\u2013395.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.2984\/68.3.7<\/a>.\u00a0ISSN<\/a>\u00a00030-8870<\/a>.\u00a0S2CID<\/a>\u00a056166137<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved\u00a013 June\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    16. Romero-Torres, Mauricio; Treml, Eric A.; Acosta, Alberto; Paz-Garc\u00eda, David A. (19 June 2018).\u00a0“The Eastern Tropical Pacific coral population connectivity and the role of the Eastern Pacific Barrier”<\/a>.\u00a0Scientific Reports<\/a><\/em>.\u00a08<\/strong>\u00a0(1): 9354.\u00a0Bibcode<\/a>:2018NatSR…8.9354R<\/a>.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.1038\/s41598-018-27644-2<\/a>.\u00a0PMC<\/a>\u00a06008413<\/a>.\u00a0PMID<\/a>\u00a029921956<\/a>.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    17. Robertson, D. R.; Allen, G. R. (1 June 1996). “Zoogeography of the shorefish fauna of Clipperton Atoll”.\u00a0Coral Reefs<\/a><\/em>.\u00a015<\/strong>\u00a0(2): 121\u2013131.\u00a0Bibcode<\/a>:1996CorRe..15..121R<\/a>.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.1007\/BF01771902<\/a>.\u00a0S2CID<\/a>\u00a041906452<\/a>.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    18. Klitgord, Kim D.; Mammerickx, Jacqueline (10 August 1982).\u00a0“Northern East Pacific Rise: Magnetic anomaly and bathymetric framework”<\/a>.\u00a0Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth<\/a><\/em>.\u00a087<\/strong>\u00a0(B8): 6725\u20136750.\u00a0Bibcode<\/a>:1982JGR….87.6725K<\/a>.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.1029\/JB087iB08p06725<\/a>.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    19. Menard, Henry W. (1956).\u00a0“Archipelagic Aprons”<\/a>.\u00a0AAPG Bulletin<\/a><\/em>.\u00a040<\/strong>.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.1306\/5CEAE56B-16BB-11D7-8645000102C1865D<\/a>.\u00a0ISSN<\/a>\u00a00149-1423<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 13 August 2011. Retrieved\u00a01 April2023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    20. Menard, H. W.; Fisher, Robert L. (1958). “Clipperton Fracture Zone in the Northeastern Equatorial Pacific”.\u00a0The Journal of Geology<\/em>.\u00a066<\/strong>\u00a0(3): 240.\u00a0Bibcode<\/a>:1958JG…..66..239M<\/a>.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.1086\/626502<\/a>.\u00a0JSTOR<\/a>\u00a030080925<\/a>.\u00a0S2CID<\/a>\u00a0129268203<\/a>.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    21. ^\u00a0a<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0Sacotte, Jean-Charles (1 March 1978).\u00a0“Dx pedition on Clipperton”<\/a>.\u00a01978 Dxpedition to Clipperton Atoll<\/em>. Translated by Jeanne, Sylvie. Clipperton DX Club. Archived from\u00a0the original<\/a>\u00a0on 29 December 2008. Retrieved\u00a01 April\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    22. Jost, Xenia; Jost, Christian H.; Meyer, Jean-Yves (6 June 2019).\u00a0“Flora and Vegetation of Clipperton (La Passion) Atoll, North-Eastern Pacific Ocean: Three Centuries of Changes and Recent Plant Dynamics”<\/a>.\u00a0Atoll Research Bulletin<\/em>\u00a0(623): 1\u201331.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.5479\/si.0077-5630.623<\/a>.\u00a0ISSN<\/a>\u00a00077-5630<\/a>.\u00a0S2CID<\/a>\u00a0197962758<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 10 December 2020. Retrieved\u00a01 April\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    23. “Clipperton Island pictures and history”<\/a>.\u00a0QSL.net<\/em>. 2000 DXpedition to Clipperton Island.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 13 April 2022. Retrieved\u00a027 April\u00a02022.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    24. Pogoreutz, Claudia; Clua, Eric E. G.; Tortolero-Langarica, J. J. Adolfo (2022).\u00a0“High live coral cover and incidence of a pink-spotted coral phenotype on remote reefs off Clipperton Island, Tropical Eastern Pacific”<\/a>.\u00a0Marine Biology<\/a><\/em>.\u00a0169<\/strong>\u00a0(9): 115.\u00a0Bibcode<\/a>:2022MarBi.169..115P<\/a>.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.1007\/s00227-022-04101-3<\/a>.\u00a0ISSN<\/a>\u00a00025-3162<\/a>.\u00a0S2CID<\/a>\u00a0257057229<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a01 April\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    25. ^\u00a0a<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0d<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0“Eastern Pacific Ocean, southeast of Mexico”<\/a>.\u00a0Terrestrial Ecoregions<\/em>. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved\u00a017 June\u00a02012.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    26. ^\u00a0a<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0Tchek\u00e9mian, Anthony (2022).\u00a0“Clipperton, seul territoire fran\u00e7ais dans l’oc\u00e9an Pacifique nord-oriental: quels enjeux environnementaux et g\u00e9opolitiques?”<\/a>\u00a0[Clipperton, the only French territory in the Northeastern Pacific Ocean: what are the environmental and geopolitical issues?].\u00a0\u00c9tudes caribi\u00e9ennes<\/em>\u00a0(in French).\u00a051<\/strong>. Retrieved\u00a022 December\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    27. ^\u00a0a<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0Wheeler, Quentin (11 August 2012).\u00a0“New to nature No 80: Callyspongia roosevelti”<\/a>.\u00a0The Guardian<\/em>.\u00a0ISSN<\/a>\u00a00261-3077<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a01 April\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    28. Limbaugh, Conrad (1 May 1959).\u00a0August \u2013 September 1958. Field Report. IGY Clipperton Island Expedition<\/a>\u00a0(Report).\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved\u00a031 March\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    29. Goldberg, Walter M.; Rankey, Eugene C. (14 July 2023),\u00a0A Global Atlas of Atolls<\/em><\/a>, Boca Raton: CRC Press,\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.1201\/9781003287339-1<\/a>,\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a0978-1-003-28733-9<\/bdi><\/a>, retrieved\u00a023 December\u00a02023normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    30. “War Diary of USS Pontotoc (AVS-7)”<\/a>.\u00a0catalog.archives.gov<\/em>. World War II War Diaries, Other Operational Records and Histories, between ca. January 1, 1942\u2013ca. June 1, 1946. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. 1 June 1945. p.\u00a01.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a01 April\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    31. Rose, Neil.\u00a0“Voices of WWII: Neil Rose”<\/a>.\u00a0Friends of the National WWII Memorial<\/em>\u00a0(Interview). Washington, DC.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a01 April\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    32. ^\u00a0a<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0Fluckey, Owen (3 July 2012).\u00a0“An Interview with Owen E. Fluckey”<\/a>.\u00a0National Museum of the Pacific War<\/a><\/em>\u00a0(Interview). Interviewed by Richard Misenhimer. Argos, Indiana. p.\u00a016.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a01 April\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    33. ^\u00a0a<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0Sachet, Marie-H\u00e9l\u00e8ne<\/a>\u00a0(1962a).\u00a0“Geography and land ecology of Clipperton Island”<\/a>.\u00a0Atoll Research Bulletin<\/em>.\u00a086<\/strong>: 1\u2013115.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.5479\/si.00775630.86.1<\/a>.\u00a0ISSN<\/a>\u00a00077-5630<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a01 April\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    34. Eckert, Scott A.; Stewart, Brent S. (2001), Tricas, Timothy C.; Gruber, Samuel H. (eds.),\u00a0“Telemetry and satellite tracking of whale sharks, Rhincodon typus, in the Sea of Cortez, Mexico, and the north Pacific Ocean”<\/a>,\u00a0The behavior and sensory biology of elasmobranch fishes: an anthology in memory of Donald Richard Nelson<\/em>, Developments in environmental biology of fishes, vol.\u00a020, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp.\u00a0299\u2013308,\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.1007\/978-94-017-3245-1_17<\/a>,\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a0978-90-481-5655-9<\/bdi><\/a>,\u00a0archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 7 July 2023, retrieved\u00a029 May2023normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    35. Maul, George A.; Hansen, Donald V.; Bravo, Nicolas J. (21 March 2013), Woodworth, P.L.; Pugh, D.T.; DeRonde, J.G.; Warrick, R.G. (eds.),\u00a0“A Note on Sea Level Variability at Clipperton Island from Geosat and In-Situ Observations”<\/a>,\u00a0Geophysical Monograph Series<\/em>, Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union, pp.\u00a0145\u2013154,\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.1029\/gm069p0145<\/a>,\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a0978-1-118-66652-4<\/bdi><\/a>,\u00a0archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 7 July 2023, retrieved\u00a029 May2023normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    36. Temmen, John; Montenegro, Alvaro; Juras, Sreya; Field, Julie S.; DeGrand, Jim (2022).\u00a0“Floating the sweet potato to Polynesia: Considering the feasibility of oceanic drift for the prehistoric introduction of the sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) to Pacific Islands”<\/a>.\u00a0Quaternary Science Reviews<\/em>.\u00a0295<\/strong>: 107709.\u00a0Bibcode<\/a>:2022QSRv..29507709T<\/a>.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.1016\/j.quascirev.2022.107709<\/a>.\u00a0S2CID<\/a>\u00a0252548506<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 30 May 2023. Retrieved\u00a029 May\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    37. Lebigre, Jean-Michel; Decoudras, Pierre-Marie (2 March 2004).\u00a0Les aires prot\u00e9g\u00e9es insulaires et littorales tropicales actes du colloque<\/em><\/a>\u00a0[Tropical island and coastal protected areas conference proceedings<\/em>] (in French). Bordeaux: Centre de recherches sur les espaces tropicaux de\u00a0l’Universit\u00e9 Michel de Montaigney<\/a>.\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a02-905081-45-7<\/bdi><\/a>.\u00a0OCLC<\/a>\u00a0492187765<\/a>.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    38. ^\u00a0a<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0c<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0Jost, Christian<\/a>\u00a0(2014).\u00a0“Bienvenue sur l’\u00eele de La Passion … Clipperton!”<\/a>\u00a0[Welcome to Passion Island … Clipperton!] (in French).\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 12 January 2018. Retrieved\u00a011 January2018.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    39. Milbrand, Lance.\u00a0“Lance Milbrand: Special Projects”<\/a>.\u00a0Milbrand Cinema<\/em>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 14 May 2012. Retrieved\u00a017 June\u00a02012.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    40. \u00c9tienne, Jean-Louis<\/a>\u00a0(2005).\u00a0“Exp\u00e9dition Clipperton”<\/a>.\u00a0JeanLouisEtienne.com<\/em>(in French).\u00a0Jean-Louis \u00c9tienne<\/a>. Archived from\u00a0the original<\/a>\u00a0on 12 May 2008. Retrieved\u00a023 May\u00a02005.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    41. de la Ronciere, Bertrand (2008).\u00a0Les Oceans Fran\u00e7ais en 36 Interviews<\/em><\/a>[The French Oceans in 36 Interviews<\/em>] (in French). Editions l’Harmattan.\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a0978-2-296-21555-9<\/bdi><\/a>.\u00a0OCLC<\/a>\u00a01373650260<\/a>.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    42. Nelson, Dan; Sachs, Julian (2 April 2008).\u00a0“Clipperton Atoll Expedition \u2013 2008”<\/a>.\u00a0Faculty.Washington.edu<\/em>. School of Oceanography,\u00a0University of Washington<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 7 October 2012. Retrieved\u00a017 June\u00a02012.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    43. Belcher, Edward. “Letter from Capt. E. Belcher (Oahu) to F. Beaufort<\/a>” (10 June 1839) [Textual record].\u00a0Records of the Hydrographic Department of Great Britain relating to surveys in the Pacific and Indian Oceans (as filmed by the AJCP), 1779\u20131946<\/a>, Box: Letters of Capt. E. Belcher, File: Surveyors’ Letters, ID: 1064184619. Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia: National Library of Australia.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    44. Jost (2003).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    45. Shor, Elizabeth Noble (1978).\u00a0Scripps Institution of Oceanography: Probing the Oceans, 1936 to 1976<\/em><\/a>. San Diego, California: Tofua Press.\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a00-914488-17-1<\/bdi><\/a>.\u00a0OCLC<\/a>\u00a04145154<\/a>.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a05 April\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
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    121. Article 9 \u2014\u00a0Loi n\u00b0 55-1052 du 6\u00a0ao\u00fbt 1955 modifi\u00e9e portant statut des Terres australes et antarctiques fran\u00e7aises et de l’\u00eele de Clipperton<\/a>\u00a0[Law No. 55-1052 of 6\u00a0August 1955 on the status of French Southern and Antarctic Lands and Clipperton Island] (Loi 55-1052) (in French). 6 August 1955.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 27 June 2015. Retrieved\u00a027 April\u00a02022.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    122. D\u00e9cret du 31 janvier 2008 relatif \u00e0 l’administration de l’\u00eele de Clipperton<\/a>[31\u00a0January 1966 Order Respecting the Administration of Clipperton Island] (D\u00e9cret) (in French). 31 January 2008.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 4 July 2015. Retrieved\u00a027 April\u00a02022.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
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    162. Arias D\u00edaz, Mateo (17 September 2024).\u00a0“El pleito por la Isla de Clipperton visto a trav\u00e9s de los peri\u00f3dicos mexicanos y franceses durante el Porfiriato”<\/a>.\u00a0Letras Hist\u00f3ricas<\/em>\u00a0(in Spanish) (30): 28 pp.\u201328 pp.\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.31836\/lh.30.7420<\/a>. Retrieved\u00a020 September\u00a02024.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
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    164. Kirchner, Stefan; Ulatowski, Laura (2023),\u00a0“Clipperton Island”<\/a>, in Gray, Kevin W. (ed.),\u00a0Global Encyclopedia of Territorial Rights<\/em>, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp.\u00a01\u20135,\u00a0doi<\/a>:10.1007\/978-3-319-68846-6_733-1<\/a>,\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a0978-3-319-68846-6<\/bdi><\/a>, retrieved\u00a023 December\u00a02023normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    165. Ongay Mendez, Alfredo Fernando (1945).\u00a0El Arbitra de la Isla Clipperton Modos de Adquirir y Enajenar en Derecho International Publico<\/em><\/a>\u00a0[The Clipperton Island Arbitration Modes of Acquisition and Disposal in Public International Law<\/em>] (Thesis) (in Mexican Spanish). Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a05 April\u00a02023.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    166. Arnaud, Gabriela (2015).\u00a0Clipperton, Una Historia de Honor y Gloria<\/em>[Clipperton, A History of Honour and Glory<\/em>] (in Spanish). Mexico: Bubok Editorial.\u00a0ISBN<\/a>\u00a0978-84-686-8274-7<\/bdi><\/a>.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
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    168. ^\u00a0a<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0b<\/strong><\/em><\/sup>\u00a0“About Clipperton Island”<\/a>.\u00a0ClippertonProject.com<\/em>. The Clipperton Project. 2014. Archived from\u00a0the original<\/a>\u00a0on 17 January 2014. Retrieved\u00a011 January\u00a02018.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    169. Perrill, Charlotte (June 1937).\u00a0“Forgotten Island”<\/a>.\u00a0Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute<\/em>. Vol.\u00a063\/6\/412.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a04 April\u00a02023.\u00a0Four men of the crew of the Nokomis volunteered to man a boat and attempt the hazardous trip to Acapulco.<\/q>normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    170. “Three Men Sail 500 Miles in Open Boat”<\/a>.\u00a0South Bend News-Times<\/em>. Vol.\u00a031, no.\u00a0182. South Bend, Indiana. 24 June 1914.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a04 April\u00a02023.\u00a0As soon as their story had been told to Admiral Howard, the cruiser Cleveland was dispatched from Acapulco under full steam to Clipperton Island…<\/q>normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    171. Bennett, Raine (10 January 1954).\u00a0“The Madonna of Passion Isle”<\/a>.\u00a0The American Weekly<\/a><\/em>. New York, New York. pp.\u00a012\u201313.\u00a0Archived<\/a>\u00a0from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved\u00a04 April\u00a02023\u00a0\u2013 via Newspapers.com.normal<\/li>\n\n\n\n
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      Clipperton Island (French: La Passion\u2013Clipperton [la pasj\u0254\u0303 klip\u0153\u0281t\u0254n]; Spanish: Isla de la Pasi\u00f3n), also known as Clipperton Atoll[5] and previously as Clipperton’s Rock,[6] is an 8.9 km2 (3.4 sq mi) uninhabited French coral atoll in the eastern Pacific Ocean. The only French territory in the North Pacific, Clipperton is 10,675 km (6,633 mi) from Paris, France; 5,400 km (2,900 nmi) from Papeete, French Polynesia; and 1,280 km (690 nmi) from Acapulco, Mexico. Clipperton was documented by French merchant-explorers in 1711 and formally claimed as part of the … <\/p>\n

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